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The neuroscience of Leadership: What we need to know from the followers' perspective

Volume editor: Michele Vincenti

(This edited volume is part of a Palgrave Macmillan series on Leadership with a follower-centric ontology)

Leadership implies followership. Understanding leadership and subordination, however, is not an easy, and usually scholarship focuses on leadership effectiveness with particular attention to the psychological preconditions that best predict leadership emergence (Hogan, Curphy, & Hogan, 1994). Haslam et al. (2011) say that leadership is construed as a process of social identity management, and effective leadership is always ''identity leadership'' (p. 197). The result of their work is an organizing framework for ''identity leadership'' that offers new insight into the rise and fall of leaders and, in the process, outlines an extensive agenda for future research (S. A. Haslam, Reicher, & Platow, 2011). When we talk about social identity, the concept of depersonalization implies that people self-stereotype and perceive themselves as increasingly interchangeable with other in-group members when social identity becomes salient (Bergh et al., 2012).

Recent studies on neuroscience play a crucial role in enhancing our understanding on the neuroscientific reasons that explain how social identity is created. The follower, seen as part of the leadership's process, may or may not go through the process of depersonalization.

Not much has been written by scholars about the neuroscience of followership. While group and organizational memberships are an important source of social identity, that invite cognitive-evaluative representation of the self in terms of attributes of and membership in the group (Hogg et al, 2010), and social identity is being seen as an important in the development of intergroup relations (Hogg, van Knippenberg, & Rast, 2012), how we relate this to neuroscience perspective has not yet been fully addressed.

Human behaviour is derived from specific biological process, that for most part are analyzed by the brain. Personality traits that prompt behaviors inspiring dominance and subordination have been studied in the past using a series of existing animal models studies (Summers et al., 2006). Studies on humans in the field of neuroscience and leadership have also been conducted, but there are only negligible studies with a focus on followership.  Some leadership scholars even go as far as to ponder whether, by using neuroscience, we can 'revolutionize the way that inspirational leaders are identified and developed (Lindebaum & Zundel, 2013).  It is important to study leadership skill sets and behaviors together with the follower perceptions of leadership behaviors, so that participation in proactive corporate initiatives both inside and outside the organization may occur (Waldman & Siegel, 2008).

Of particular relevance is the understanding of the communication process between the follower and the leader with focus on neuroscience. The neural mechanisms designed through artificial evolution allow the leaders to participate in developing the social interactions between the leader and the follower. In Quinn (2001) and Quinn et al. (2003), the authors found that behaviors that have a communicative value resulted from the adaptation of other elementary behaviors, which did not have a communicative function (i.e., obstacle avoidance). Thus, the authors concluded that behavior for social coordination may evolve in a non-communicative context, and that only subsequently acquire its adaptive function (M Quinn, 2001; Matt Quinn, Smith, Mayley, & Husbands, 2003). The neuroscience approach might be the key to better understanding what is involved in the non-communicative approach.

Another important argument that should be viewed using the neuroscience is the followers' perception of the leader. In fact, A more appropriate ontological locus of leadership resides in the dyadic relationship between a leader and follower- as opposed to a leader-centric (Antonakis, Fenley, & Liechti, 2011) or follower-centric locus (Meindl, 1995). Also, existing research on dyadic relationships at work (i.e. between a leader and follower) often reflects a misalignment between theory and measurement (Krasikova & LeBreton, 2012). The neurobiological approach could give a new perspective on this misalignment, to bring new light on the leader/follower construct often theorized as dyadic. Scholars often obtain data from one source only (e.g. follower perceptions of trust), while not being sufficiently sensitive to contextual nuances (Lindebaum, 2013). We argue that the contextual nuances should include a review using the neurobiological approach.

Another interesting area of scholarship from the followers' perspective, is the domain of disruptive irrationality using the lenses of the Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the Emotional Quotient (EQ).  EI is a model, developed by Goleman & Boyatzis that contains a set of competencies (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2009). Goleman, McKee, & Boyatzis expanded this model to describe emotional intelligence in leadership, or "Resonant Leadership" (Brooks, 2003). EQ, on the other hand, as defined by Service & Fekula, is a matrix of EI competencies, organized by strengths/weaknesses and controllable/uncontrollable traits (Service & Fekula, 2008). Boyatzis, R. E., Passarelli, A. M., Koenig, K., Lowe, M., Mathew, B., Stoller, J. K., and Phillips, M. (2012) wrote a study exploring the neurological effects on followers of the recall of critical interactions with resonant and dissonant leaders (Boyatzis et al., 2012). The first natural weakness in Emotional Quotient (EQ) is the inability to keep your head when others are losing theirs; that is, exhibiting uncontrollable and destructive emotional excitability that leads to disruptive or emotional irrationality. Leaders with low EQ have the opposite affect a leader should have because they can cause panic in some of the otherwise unconcerned followers. Many people lose control when things do not go as planned, but do so in varying degrees (Service & Fekula, 2008).

For this book we seek contributions that investigate the followers' position in relationship to the leaders in the context of neuroscience, an area which is understudied (Molenberghs, Prochilo, Steffens, Zacher, & Haslam, 2015). Understanding the followers' behavior from a scientific point of view, could help organizations operate more effectively.

Some reflective questions include (this is not an exhaustive list):

1. Molenberghs et al. (2015) state that a growing literature has examined the neurological substrates and brain functioning of those leaders who are believed to be particularly inspirational (Lee, Senior, & Butler, 2012; Waldman, Balthazard, & Peterson, 2011). However, the neuroscientific mechanisms accounting for these effects in followers - that is, in those who are the ultimate proof of leaders' inspiration-are largely unknown. What can we say today about the mechanism by which followers define a leader as being inspirational?

2. Leader–follower workplace relationships are formed, and are based to some extent on communal exchange relationships, in which the leader and follower have a general obligation to be concerned about the other's welfare and to give benefits in response to the other's needs (Simons, Kark, Leroy, & Tomlinson, 2011). How do 'followers' make predictions and find patterns in the workplace, and how is this different from the neuroscience of managers?

3. According to some characterizations of extraversion, this trait might evolve from a temperament called positive emotionality, which corresponds to elevated levels of dopamine (Depue, Luciana, Arbisi, Collins, & Leon, 1994), and augments sensitivity to rewards (Elliot & Thrash, 2002). How do extravert 'followers' and extravert managers work together in the context of this dopamine effect?

4. "Evolutionary psychology suggests that humans are hardwired in ways that govern most human behavior-how people think and feel and how they relate to one another. For example, in an uncertain world, a cardinal evolutionary psychological premise is emotions before reason" (Heydenfeldt, 2010: 36) How do 'followers' perceive the manager's fair well-being effort for the group, when emotions come before reason? What is the evolutionary perspective of neuroscience?

5. What we see through the retina is elaborated by the thalamus and by the visual cortex allowing us to see what we want to see and not what it is (Wurtz, McAlonan, Cavanaugh, & Berman, 2011). How does the thalamic attention alter for a 'follower' working with a controlling micro-manager? Is what the 'follower' expects to see 'different' from working with a more hands-off manager?

6. Episodic memory requires reconsolidation between the Hippocampus and the Neocortex where memory is stored, causing changes over time to what we really experienced (Lindner & Henkel, 2015). What are the effects on the 'follower' through reconsolidation when the 'follower' works with a 'good' manager and when working with a 'toxic' manager? The amygdala regulates emotion-related learning and fear conditioning (Claire, Sophie, Claudia, Philippe, & Eliane, 2016). What are the major differences in amygdales between leaders and followers? 

7. Expressions of anger create discomfort for agreeable individuals' who prefer social harmony (McCrae & Costa, 1987), and for them the confrontation with an angry leader is  particularly demanding and stressful (Suls, Martin, & David, 1998). What are the effects on the 'follower' working with an angry manager? Can the 'follower' 'control' her/his own mirror neurons that cause the subconscious imitation of the angry manager attitude?

8.  A mix of neurochemical events seems to produce particular manager and 'follower' qualities (Korzan, Øverli, & Summers, 2006). Changing the timing and quantity of dopamine, serotonin, testosterone and cortisol, what kind of 'followers' we can have?

9. The Ventral Striatium also known as the Nucleus Accumbens plays a role in our anticipated value. Leaders who focus on "the group" (rather than on themselves) and, thus, create a shared identity with would-be followers, are most capable of inspiring followers (S. Alexander Haslam & Platow, 2001). How is the Ventral Striatium (NA) affecting this result?

10. While previous research has examined the neurological substrates of leaders who are perceived to be inspirational, the neurological mechanisms of followers that is, those who perceive leaders to be inspirational and who ultimately work to turn their visions into reality-remain largely uncharted (Molenberghs et al., 2015). An exploratory analysis of the 'follower's mechanisms'.

11. Cunliffe (2009) investigates reflexive accounts of leadership as 'selves-in relation-to-others'. She also says that leadership is 'embedded in the everyday relationally-responsive dialogical practice of leaders' (Ann L. Cunliffe, 2009; Ann L Cunliffe & Eriksen, 2011). What are the latest developments in neuroscience, leadership and followership that can shed some light on this dialogical practice?

12. Disruptive emotional reactions to life's significant changes show a certain level of genetic propensity for handling change well (Service & Fekula, 2008). Also, considering that only under social identity conditions did the participant's own characteristics align with the group stereotype (Bergh et al., 2012), the question is if the disruptive emotional situation, creates a different outcome or not. How can the leader and the follower better adapt to change the disruptive emotional reaction?

13. Discussions around Emotional Intelligence (EI) and leadership called for additional research into novel areas such as cultural impacts on EI, new developments in neuroscience, and leadership ethics (Walter, Cole, & Humphrey, 2011).  Boyatzis et al. (2012: 270), say: "Knowing the neurological processes behind both a leader's behavior and his or her followers' responses may allow for improved pedagogy and training, thus helping leaders to form more effective relationships". What is the most recent view from the neuroscience perspective?

Proposals Submission Deadline: March 30^th, 2016

Interested authors are invited to submit chapter proposal (maximum two pages) to alvana@telus.net  clearly stating in what way their chapter will uniquely contribute towards this theme. You are also invited to clearly underline the key message in the proposed chapter and provide an overview of the chapter structure. Feedback on proposals will be provided by April 30^th, 2016.

Full Chapters Due: August 31^st, 2016

Authors are responsible for submitting a well-written and edited final draft to the editor, 6000 to 7000 words long, written in APA style. The chapters will undergo a double blind peer review. This book is scheduled to be published by Palgrave MacMillan in mid-2017.

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